Faith and Food in Rural Malawi
by Dorothy Thembo
Summary
Despite years of substantial agricultural output, household food insecurity persists in Malawi due to sociocultural factors influencing food consumption. The primary aim of this project was to examine the interplay between traditional belief systems, religion, and food security in Malawi across households of different religions. The study occurred in a predominantly Christian and Muslim village, each belonging to one dominant ethnicity. Specifically, the Christian village is predominantly Ngoni, and the Muslim village is largely Yao. The findings reveal that religion and culture significantly shape the dietary preferences of rural Malawians. It was observed that Muslims are more likely to have their religious beliefs impact their food consumption (with 82% reporting such impacts), while Yao individuals are more likely to have their traditional values influence their food consumption (with 80% reporting such effects). The study also indicates that the risk of food insecurity, in terms of inadequate food or lack of funds for food, is highest for Islamic respondents of non-Yao ethnicity. Additionally, the odds of a Yao Christian respondent experiencing food inadequacy or lacking funds for food are much lower compared to those of an Islamic respondent of non-Yao ethnicity.
The study proposes that integrating cultural factors into food security policies can result in the development of more effective and efficient interventions. This can contribute to establishing a sustainable food system that ensures food security for all. Engaging in comprehensive research can reveal both the benefits and disadvantages of integrating sociocultural aspects into broader food security measures and determine the extent to which they should be incorporated into policy. Therefore, conducting ethnographic research and documenting local cultures and beliefs related to food security is essential. The newly gathered data will offer fresh insights into the issue of food security in Africa, which can then be integrated into policies.
Key points
In Malawian society, food holds cultural significance and is essential for survival. There is an over-reliance on maize and nsima, which exacerbates food insecurity by prioritizing maize production over other crops.
Dietary restrictions exacerbate food insecurity by restricting access to local food. These restrictions disproportionately impact vulnerable groups such as pregnant women and children.
Communal events such as weddings, initiation ceremonies, and funerals unite the community but may also lead to household food insecurity. It is customary for families to extend invitations to the public for these events, often resulting in surplus prepared food and food waste.
Women play important roles in food production but face obstacles, including unequal resource access to cultural norms. It is imperative to rectify gender disparities to harness women's indigenous knowledge for sustainable rural development. Integration of feminist food studies approaches into analysis is crucial for addressing this issue effectively.
Introduction
The lives and experiences of Africans are influenced by their religious beliefs, cultural practices, and historical customs, which govern and regulate their sociopolitical lives. Indigenous and faith communities adhere to various ethical, theological, and philosophical traditions that impact local food systems. Religious and cultural beliefs influence the types of foods that should be consumed and how those foods should be produced and processed.
In Malawi, food choices are often influenced by faith, culture, and local traditions. Christian, Muslim, and indigenous food systems have specific prescriptions regulating food access and utilization. For instance, followers of the Islamic faith adhere to Halal food prescriptions, while some Christian groups, like Seventh-Day Adventists, follow Jewish dietary laws. Traditional food proscriptions also influence the food choices of most Christians in Malawi. hese religio-cultural beliefs collectively shape the composition of diets and traditional food procurement, combination, processing, and preparation. he intersection of the traditional food system with religious beliefs and their influence on food and nutrition represents a research opportunity in Malawi. he study evaluates the food security status of households from different ethnic and religious groups in the Machinga district.
Methodology
The study used quantitative and qualitative methods to gather primary data from 230 respondents in two villages using focus group discussions and six key informant interviews. he data was collected in Chimkwenzule village and Mlelemba village in the Machinga district. hese villages were chosen due to their differences in culture and religious beliefs, with Chimkwenzule village being predominantly Ngoni and Christian and Mlelemba village being Yao and predominantly Muslim. his difference provided a good contrast for examining the accessibility of food and utilization based on traditional beliefs and religion.
Quantitative data was collected from 190 households in both villages. ummary statistics, cross-tabulations, Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney tests, Pearson chi-square, and Fisher’s exact tests were used to analyze the household survey data. he analysis investigated the distribution and associations between independent and dependent variables, such as household wealth and food security dimensions, adherence to cultural and religious beliefs, and food uptake in the study areas.
The study also involved gathering information on respondents' typical diet, desired diet, and preferred foods when ill to accurately assess food preferences. Additionally, the research explored the influence of religious and cultural factors on dietary choices, the occurrence of religious and cultural festivals and their impact on food consumption. his information was valuable for understanding postharvest food usage and determining whether there was community pressure to participate in these events, particularly in the context of food insecurity.
Study Findings
The paper's quantitative component used univariate, bivariate and multivariate analyses to address our research questions. These analyses showed that religious and traditional beliefs influence food choices. While the religious belief effects are more predominant for Muslims (effects reported for up to 82% of Muslims, see the first Figure), traditional belief effects were more prominent for people of the Yao tribe (80%, as shown in the second Figure). Interestingly, we found that being Christian and belonging to the Yao tribe are both (separately) highly associated with food insecurity, and the risk of being food insecure (in terms of having inadequate food or lacking funds for food) is highest for Islamic respondents of non-Yao (i.e. any other) ethnicity. The odds of a Yao Christian respondent facing food inadequacy or lack of funds for food are much lower than the odds for an Islamic respondent of non-Yao ethnicity (i.e. there are higher chances for an Islamic respondent of non-Yao ethnicity to face food insecurity than for a Yao Christian respondent).
Cultural and local understanding of “food”
The study aimed to understand why there is persistent household food insecurity in Malawi by examining how the community defines food. t found that in Malawian society, food holds cultural significance beyond being a biological necessity. ood taboos based on culture and religion are used to distinguish between different groups and communities, creating a sense of "us" versus "them." In traditional societies, food serves as both a basic need for survival and a complex concept with deep cultural implications. hese implications include fostering community, preserving cultural heritage, passing on history, and creating emotional connections to past generations. Therefore, understanding and interpreting food depends heavily on cultural and religious contexts.
Research findings show that many Malawian households consider "nsima," a stiff porridge made from maize, to be synonymous with the concept of food. The availability of maize, or nsima, is the standard by which most residents, including politicians, measure food security. Even when reporting on hunger and famine, the amount of maize and people's access to it is frequently the focal points of attention.
Crops such as rice, legumes, sweet potato, and cassava are sold, and the proceeds are used to purchase maize to produce nsima. The study demonstrates that this overreliance on maize and nsima sometimes contributes to food insecurity, as communities prioritize the production of maize at the expense of other crops that might do well during that particular growing season.
The data collected from both villages show that eating nsima made from maize bran signifies distress. Maize bran is typically discarded for white flour, which is the preferred option. According to the findings of this study, Nsima made from maize bran is eaten in December, January, and February, indicating that eating habits change according to the season.
Maize as food security in Malawi
This study illustrates the sociocultural construction of Nsima/Maize as a metaphor for rural Malawians, representing both food and a significant aspect of their identity. Despite climate change and a lack of access to resources such as fertiliser, rural farmers emphasise maize farming for their sustenance, often defying government guidelines on which crops to plant each season. The paper demonstrates that researchers, policymakers, and local community members must work together to combat food insecurity in Malawi and find sustainable solutions. At the same time, they must shape social and political narratives to include non-nsima/maize food items as "food" in their own right rather than just a substitute. Promoting dietary diversification and dispelling the misconception that nsima is the sole food option in Malawi is necessary.
Cultural and religious food proscriptions and prescriptions
Food insecurity is compounded by dietary restrictions, which limit people's access to locally available food. significant 41.7% of respondents cited religion as a key factor influencing their food choices, while 34.1% mentioned that their traditional beliefs also impact the food they consume. his suggests that culture and religion shape the food preferences of over 75% of the respondents. Furthermore, 81.8% of Islamic respondents indicated that their food choices are influenced by their religious beliefs, aligning with the Islamic practice of abstaining from certain foods. notably, over 80% of the Yao population identified as Islamic. Overall, these findings indicate that religion and ethnicity (traditional beliefs) are integral in shaping the food choices of the respondents in the study area.
The communities collectively acknowledged that traditional beliefs play a role in food choices through taboos but emphasized the greater influence of religious beliefs. n Chimkwenzule village, home to most of the Ngoni people, the consumption of mice, monkeys, and pork is widespread, with pigs being raised domestically, and these foods serve as a significant source of animal protein. n contrast, in Mlelemba village, where the majority are Yao and Muslim, there are strict religious restrictions on pork, monkeys, and mice, impacting household food choices and limiting consumption of local proteins and more affordable options. Religious constraints limit the consumption of locally available proteins like ngumbi (flying insects that appear at the onset of rains) and more affordable options such as pork. Moreover, due to their high cost, households cannot afford alternative animal proteins like chicken and goat meat.
The study also noted that Mlelemba Village and Chimkwenzule Village residents adhere to cultural beliefs that significantly influence their food choices and religious restrictions. cultural norms governing the dietary practices of pregnant women are prevalent in many traditional societies in Malawi. However, these taboos restrict food diversity and the utilization of available nutritious foods, which can have detrimental effects on the nutritional well-being of vulnerable groups such as children and pregnant women who are at risk of food insecurity.
Cultural and religious festivals and post-harvest food waste
In many traditional communities, communal events such as weddings are highly valued because they unite the community. their communal events include initiation ceremonies and funerals. Both villages agreed that weddings, initiation ceremonies, and funeral rites contribute to household food insecurity. After a burial, friends and close relatives traditionally stay with the bereaved family for a few days to offer condolences. The family is responsible for providing food for those offering condolences during the funeral and several days after. his may lead to an excess of prepared food and strain the food supply for the grieving family.
Families are expected to invite the public to their initiation ceremonies, weddings, and funerals. ailing to do so is improper and can lead to social scrutiny. This pressure ensures families with limited resources comply with the community's expectations. These rituals are important to the community because they provide opportunities for networking, celebration, and closure for the family as they celebrate the life of the recently deceased family member. These ceremonies are conducted as rites of passage to unite the community. uring these festivities, the community has observed significant food waste. This may be attributed to the challenge of estimating the number of attendees at these public gatherings, which results in the preparation of surplus food and subsequent wastage.
Women as critical agents in food security
In numerous countries, women play a pivotal role in food production but encounter significant obstacles, such as unequal access to land, resources, and extension services. Studies indicate that the marginalization of women in many African communities stems from a patriarchal culture that upholds male dominance. even in matrilineal societies where women inherit the land, final family decisions are typically made by men. Additionally, despite women's significant roles in various Indigenous rituals and practices, their knowledge is often marginalized. Consequently, the utilization of women's Indigenous knowledge in food production has declined due to sociocultural and structural barriers. The study recommends addressing subjugatory gender relations to fully leverage women's indigenous knowledge for sustainable rural development. his transformation entails challenging entrenched power structures and recognizing experiences rooted in societal norms and ideologies. t also involves integrating feminist food studies approaches into our analysis to challenge dominant themes in scholarship on food security.
Conclusion and recommendations
There are several policies that the government designed and implemented to regulate the agricultural sector and to attain food security. these include the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) Food and Nutrition Strategy 2015–2025 and the Malawi Vision 2063. ll these policies were developed and implemented to improve the livelihoods of subsistence and smallholder farmers. his section will review these policies and show their connection to food security. To begin with, the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) Food and Nutrition Strategy 2015–2025 was developed in Lilongwe, Malawi and addressed food and security issues in the subregion. However, the policy does not mention the importance of cultural and religious beliefs in food and nutrition security (Southern Africa Development Community 2014). he Malawi Vision 2063, which currently sets the agenda for all developmental work in Malawi, acknowledges the contribution of Agriculture to national development (Government of Malawi 2020:11). ther policies in Malawi that are designed to improve people's livelihood through agricultural productivity include the National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy (2016), The National Livestock Development Policy (2021–2026), National Fisheries And Aquaculture Policy (2016), National Irrigation Policy (2016), Farmer Organization Development Strategy (2020–2025), and National Seed Policy (2018).
The National Livestock Development Policy (2021–2026) is designed and implemented to ensure livestock integration into crop systems. ational Irrigation Policy (2016) was implemented to manage water resources sustainably and increase agricultural production and productivity. urther, the policy is designed to encourage crop diversity and irrigation. armer Organization Development Strategy (2020–2025) deals with agricultural cooperatives and smallholder farmers to integrate them into the urban and international markets. he policy aims to develop farmer organisations at the grassroots level and create a conducive environment for farmer organisations to flourish (Farmer Organization Development Strategy, 2020:3). he establishment of these cooperatives is expected to empower farmers by enabling them to negotiate fair prices for their agricultural produce and receive just compensation for their efforts. he National Seed Policy (2018) acknowledges the crucial significance of a sustainable seed sector in enhancing agricultural production and diversification (National Seed Policy 2018:1). s a result, the strategy guarantees the accessibility of enhanced kinds and superior seeds to enhance agricultural output. he primary focus of the National Seed Policy 2018, as stated on page 3, is to regulate the seed industry and market to guarantee the production and accessibility of high-quality seeds for farmers.
The National Agricultural Investment Plan prioritises nutrition by implementing initiatives to improve food systems, promote nutrition education, and combat malnutrition through diverse programmes. he fundamental objective is to guarantee that all people have access to a wide variety of available nutritious food whenever needed (National Agricultural Investment Plan, 2018:181). ith the National Multi-Sector Nutrition Policy of Malawi for 2018–2022 (2018), the government of Malawi demonstrates its commitment to boosting nutrition as an essential component of human development and socio-economic progress. he policy recognises the complexity of nutrition-related issues and calls for a multi-sectoral strategy, as well as successful collaboration and coordination between different sectors to fully address these concerns (National Multi-Sector Nutrition Policy, 2018:14). he National Agriculture Policy (2016) emphasises the significance of generating and utilising a wide range of nourishing foods in accordance with the National Nutrition Policy and Strategic Plan. his involves improving agricultural households' understanding, beliefs, and abilities by expanding the variety of foods in their diet (National Agriculture Policy, 2016: 54).
These policies, taken as a whole, show that the government has embraced a multisectoral strategy for boosting agricultural output and productivity, involving policymakers, civil society, other key stakeholders, and farmers. he interconnected policies aim to reduce the impact of climate change and natural disasters and the sustainable use of land and water to improve farmers' livelihoods at the grassroots level. he policy texts noticeably lack consideration of social-cultural and religious aspects, which also impact food security and are broadly considered under indigenous knowledge systems. eligio-cultural beliefs significantly shape dietary choices, including the selection, combination, processing, and food preparation in civilisations (Alonso 2015). ost importantly, indigenous knowledge frequently includes sustainable agricultural practices, crop diversification, and methods for preserving food, all of which can significantly improve food security. onsequently, failure to prioritise or maintain cultural knowledge can weaken food systems and diminish their capacity to respond to environmental shifts. herefore, policies informed by research could investigate how contemporary technologies can be seamlessly incorporated with traditional methods to improve food security.
While gender policies are already in place to empower women, the study recommends implementing additional policies and strategies, specifically focusing on incorporating gender concerns into developing agricultural technologies. oreover, it emphasizes the need to integrate Indigenous knowledge into these technologies, particularly acknowledging women as vulnerable groups and custodians of Indigenous knowledge. n traditional African societies, rituals and offerings to ancestors held great significance. owever, the spread of Christianity has led to the decline of indigenous spiritual practices, impacting the community's ability to sustain their livelihood and diminishing the role of ancestors in ensuring food security. ddressing food insecurity in Africa requires collaborative efforts involving various stakeholders, including indigenous knowledge systems. he study recommends embracing African cultural values like Ubuntu to restore the environment and ensure household food security.
Moreover, the study proposes that food concerns in higher education should be viewed as a matter of social justice, necessitating examination from a comprehensive perspective that considers social structures, power dynamics, allocation of resources, human rights, fairness, and equal opportunity. dditionally, the study suggests that a transformative paradigm be used to conduct multidisciplinary research effectively. his indicates that to offer ethical and sustainable solutions, the academic community must collaborate with all pertinent stakeholders, including the community. n Malawi, contemporary studies and research have disregarded the significance of traditional beliefs and religion in food security. his oversight reflects the disciplinary orientation of the researchers. herefore, it is imperative to incorporate the humanities, which focus on culture, belief, identities, and social justice, into the discussion to provide sustainable research that addresses the crucial challenges individuals encounter in their environments due to their traditional and religious beliefs and practices.
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